Figure Credits | Tangibles

Introduction

Fig. 0.1 Software eats the world: Illustration by Frits Ahlefeldt, via PublicDomainPictures.net, CC0 / Public Domain Public domain / CC0
Fig. 0.2 Hermeus Quarterhorse: Is this product management?: Image: Hermeus
Fig. 0.3 Hermeus Quarterhorse: Ambitious goals: Image: Hermeus
Fig. 0.4 RAMJET is tricky: Assembly floor: Image: Hermeus
Fig. 0.5 Hermeus Quarterhorse test flight: Hermeus, via YouTube
Fig. 0.6 Sony Reader: Image by ALLESebook.de, CC BY 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons CC BY — credit required
Fig. 0.7 Interface design as a differentiator in the automotive industry: Author's work
Fig. 0.8 Relative cost of interface design in the automotive industry: Author's work
Fig. 0.9 Digitization drives software product management style: Author's work
Fig. 0.10 Product management role shift: Author's work
Fig. 0.11 Can physical products be sold as a service?: Author's work
Fig. 0.12 PM activities migrate post launch: Author's work
Fig. 0.13 Global IoT market forecast: connected IoT devices: Data and image from State of IoT 2025

Chapter 1

Fig. 1.1 Evolution of automotive cockpit and exterior design (1908–2020): (Photo by Philip Schroeder on Unsplash (adapted from Wikimedia Commons (Photo by David von Diemar on Unsplash
Fig. 1.2 Comparison of failure rates of Hardware vs. Software startups: Author's own work
Fig. 1.3 Consumer hardware startup success funnel: Author's own work
Fig. 1.4 Dolav: Residential Waste Bin: Author's own work
Fig. 1.5 Comparative sunk costs for software and hardware products: Author's own work
Fig. 1.6 Profit ranges for software and hardware products (compiled): Author's own work
Fig. 1.7 Failure rates for software and hardware products: Author's own work
Fig. 1.8 Epic hardware startup failures: Source: CB Insights
Fig. 1.9 Growth for software and hardware products: Source: Equidam, with author's processing
Fig. 1.10 Cash balance for software and hardware products: Author's own work
Fig. 1.11 VC allocation by sectors: Source: KPMG
Fig. 1.12 Time-to-market for hardware and software products: Author's own work

Chapter 2

Fig. 2.1 Better Place: A painful experience: Via Wikimedia Commons
Fig. 2.2 Points of failure: Time, Cost: Author's own work
Fig. 2.3 Software vs. Hardware: financial prospects of failure (illustration): Author's own work
Fig. 2.4 Production ramp-up NRE accumulation: Author's own work
Fig. 2.5 Obsolete products may linger long: Via Wikimedia Commons
Fig. 2.6 Seasonal price changes can be brutal: Image: Blundstone
Fig. 2.7 Software startup failures: Stage vs. financial impact (0.0 denotes general availability release): Author's own work
Fig. 2.8 Hardware startup fatality and financial impact (0.0 denotes launch): Author's own work
Fig. 2.9 Ford Edsel: Notorious F.L.O.P: Via Wikimedia Commons
Fig. 2.10 Better Place: Where swappable batteries won't do: Via Wikimedia Commons

Chapter 3

Fig. 3.1 Mass Extinction: Indexed Global Shipments of Digital Cameras and GPS Navigation Devices, 2000–2023: Author's own work
Fig. 3.2 Canon APS Elph camera: Image retrieved from Wikimedia Commons, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Canon_APS_Elph.jpg, CC BY-SA 2.0 (Andrew Butitta from Madison, WI, United States) CC BY-SA — credit required
Fig. 3.3 Swiss Army Knife (Victorinox): Photograph by Ramessos (n.d.), Wikimedia Commons, CC BY 2.0 (James Case from Philadelphia, Mississippi, U.S.A.) CC BY — credit required
Fig. 3.4 Swiss Army Knife Platform Morphology: Author's own work
Fig. 3.5 Smartphone platform morphology: Author's own work
Fig. 3.6 Mind Map of Core Systems in a Petrol-Powered Passenger Car: Generated by the author
Fig. 3.7 Timeline of smartphone GPS-based features with iPhone and Android launch markers: Author's own work, adapted from (GPS World 2018; NCBI/PMC 2015)
Fig. 3.8 Handheld LED flashlight: Image via Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 3.0 (Wuzur) CC BY-SA — credit required
Fig. 3.9 Unit sales of LED flashlights and mobile phones (feature phones and smartphones), 2000–2020: Author's own work
Fig. 3.10 Aggregate market value of major flashlight manufacturers (blue, left axis) versus number of competing firms (orange, right axis), 2000–2020: Author's own work
Fig. 3.11 Action camera mounted for cycling use (GoPro Hero 4): via Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 3.0 (Jérémy-Günther-Heinz Jähnick) CC BY-SA — credit required
Fig. 3.12 Global Action-Camera Market 2004-2020: Author's own work
Fig. 3.13 Road cyclists are always at risk: Adapted from a photo by Seyda Ünlü on Unsplash
Fig. 3.14 Strava's Beacon functionality screens: Screenshot from Strava
Fig. 3.15 Beacon mounted on the seatpost: Image: Yama design
Fig. 3.16 Cyclebe beacon: Parts and assembly: Image: Yama design

Chapter 4

Fig. 4.1 Competitive pressure is real: Photo: Unsplash, Unsplash License
Fig. 4.2 Chinese manufacture: Photo: Unsplash, Unsplash License
Fig. 4.3 iRobot Roomba: Photo by Onur Binay on Unsplash, Unsplash License
Fig. 4.4 Market share trends of leading robotic vacuum manufacturers (2021–2025).¹: Author's own work
Fig. 4.5 Unit sales trends of leading robotic vacuum manufacturers (2021–2025).¹: Author's own work
Fig. 4.6 BYD EV: Photo: Unsplash, Unsplash License
Fig. 4.7 Gross profit margins (%) in the global EV segment (2014–2024).²: Author's own work
Fig. 4.8 Gross profit (in billions USD) for major EV manufacturers (2014–2024).²: Author's own work

Chapter 5

Fig. 5.1 Look ma! No interface!: (Photo by Eye Speak on Unsplash) (Photo by Marcus Urbenz on Unsplash)
Fig. 5.2 Analog indicators: dials and gauges: (Photo by Crystal Kwok on Unsplash) (Photo by Mustafa ILHAN on Unsplash)
Fig. 5.3 Early Digital displays: (Wikimedia Commons (Wikimedia Commons
Fig. 5.4 LED displays: (embedded-lab.com (Wikimedia Commons
Fig. 5.5 From custom segments to dot matrix: (Wikimedia Commons (Photo by Sarah Dao on Unsplash
Fig. 5.6 Dot Matrix accommodates flexibility: (Photo by Mika Baumeister on Unsplash (adapted from Wikimedia Commons
Fig. 5.7 Color displays in consumer products: (Wikimedia Commons (Wikimedia Commons
Fig. 5.8 Mixed and Pure Touch Interfaces: (Wikimedia Commons (Wikimedia Commons
Fig. 5.9 Over-the-air interface updates: (a) image via Teslarati; (b) screenshot from YouTube
Fig. 5.10 Multi-modal inputs: (a) author's own work, based on Nissan; (b) via Wikimedia Commons
Fig. 5.11 From Model T to "smartphone on wheels" to driverless: Images: (a) Ford Model T (Photo by Philip Schroeder on Unsplash — (b) Apple CarPlay — (c) Nissan IDS Concept

Chapter 6

Fig. 6.1 Flight Data Recorder (Black Box), displayed at the HAL Aerospace Museum: Image via Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 3.0 (Rameshng) CC BY-SA — credit required
Fig. 6.2 The machine that goes PING scene from The Meaning of Life (1983) by Monty Python. Click or scan QR to watch the clip: Video via YouTube
Fig. 6.3 The Black box model. What's missing?: Illustration by the author
Fig. 6.4 Consumer grade UPS by Gamtronic, circa 1994: Studio r2d2 – Vered Shlomo, the author
Fig. 6.5 Wireless router with active indicator lights: Photo by Compare Fibre on Unsplash, Unsplash License
Fig. 6.6 Photorealistic car dashboard featuring an illuminated seatbelt and airbag warning lights: Image generated by the Gemini 3 Pro AI model, by Google, 2026
Fig. 6.7 Sony PlayStation's glorious Reset button: Photo by Nikita Kachanovsky on Unsplash, Unsplash License
Fig. 6.8 Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI) outlet with self-test and reset buttons: Image: Walmart

Chapter 7

Fig. 7.1 Alessandro Volta's electric pile (ca. 1800): Image via Wikimedia Commons, CC BY 3.0 (Luigi Chiesa) CC BY — credit required
Fig. 7.2 CPU quantities as a function of system size (illustrative): Author's own work
Fig. 7.3 How much space does one watt-hour need? Volumetric efficiency of primary and rechargeable battery chemistries, 1800–2028 (illustrative): Author's own work
Fig. 7.4 Glen Beck (background) and Betty Snyder (foreground) program the ENIAC in Building 328 at the Ballistic Research Laboratory, Philadelphia, ca. 1947–1955: US Army Photo, public domain. Via Wikimedia Commons Public domain / CC0
Fig. 7.5 iPhone 4 (model A1332) mainboard with Apple A4 system-on-chip visible at center right, compared to a moth of the original Grace Hopper's bug: Adapted from a photo by Raimond Spekking, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA — credit required
Fig. 7.6 Three decades of compute compression (1972–1989): Photos via Wikimedia Commons: Pong, Atari 7800, and Game Boy
Fig. 7.7 Marconi's first antenna system at Poldhu, Cornwall, December 1901. Fifty copper wires suspended in a fan shape between two 60-meter masts: Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons Public domain / CC0
Fig. 7.8 A Photorealistic Rendering of a 2.4 GHz Planar PCB Antenna: Generated by Gemini, Google, 2026
Fig. 7.9 Apple AirTag (2021): a 31.9 mm disc containing BLE and UWB radios, accelerometer, speaker, and battery: Photo by Daniel Romero on Unsplash, Unsplash License
Fig. 7.10 Mass Production is where value accrues: Photo by Jan Huber on Unsplash, Unsplash License
Fig. 7.11 Conceptual Comparison of Automotive and Consumer-Grade Accelerometers: Generated using Google Gemini
Fig. 7.12 Sony TR-610 (1958), the immediate successor to the breakthrough TR-63: CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA — credit required

Chapter 8

Fig. 8.1 UV light erasable EPROM (ST M27C160) showing package and quartz window for UV erasure: Image via Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 4.0 (Javier Pérez Montes) CC BY-SA — credit required
Fig. 8.2 STMicro M24C02 I²C Serial-Type EEPROM in DIP-8 Package: Image via Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 3.0 (Nevit Dilmen (talk)) CC BY-SA — credit required
Fig. 8.3 MaxScan OE509 OBD-II/EOBD Handheld Diagnostic Scanner: Image via Wikimedia Commons, Public domain (Arp) Public domain / CC0
Fig. 8.4 Clock in the main station in Zürich, Switzerland: Image via Wikimedia, CC BY-SA 3.0 (JuergenG, modified by Rainer Z) CC BY-SA — credit required
Fig. 8.5 SBB Clock Animation demonstrating the operating principle. Note the lag in the seconds hand before minutes jumps to next. Click or scan QR to view the animation: Image via Wikimedia, CC BY-SA 4.0 (Uhrendesign Hans Hilfiker, Animation Hk kng) CC BY-SA — credit required
Fig. 8.6 Connectivity protocol families mapped by product impact: range, power, bandwidth, product examples, and business model implications: Generated using Google Gemini. Author's data and prompt
Fig. 8.7 Uplink and Downlink Communication in IoT Cloud-Operator Systems: Author's own work
Fig. 8.8 Total Cost of a Faulty Part (TCFP) by detection stage, illustrating the 1-10-100 Rule Of Ten (Labovitz & Chang, 1992): Relative values are illustrative. Model and data by the author
Fig. 8.9 Connected devices at scale: Image via Unsplash
Fig. 8.10 Comparing cloud-centric data bottleneck versus local edge processing: Author's concept generated via Gemini

Chapter 9

Fig. 9.1 EyeClick's EyeWiz: An interactive educational game platform: Author's own work
Fig. 9.2 HomeFree Systems Patient monitoring watch — This is a worn suite of sensors: Image: I2D design office, Eitan Sharif
Fig. 9.3 CRT Screen Burning: Image: Wikimedia Commons, Public domain (Piercetheorganist) Public domain / CC0
Fig. 9.4 AI/ML in the Cloud: Inference Bottlenecks: Author's own work
Fig. 9.5 A compute-locator view: each workload matched to edge, hub, or cloud by weighing latency, bandwidth, cost, and battery life across the fleet: Author's own work
Fig. 9.6 Scan to ERP: The Data Flow Integrity Challenge: Author's own work
Fig. 9.7 Parsing errors propagate through AI pipeline: Author's own work
Fig. 9.8 HITL Lag buildup along the chain: Author's own work
Fig. 9.9 Pre-processing edge ML based algorithm: Author's own work
Fig. 9.10 A solenoid valve: an example for a basic building block of actuation. An electrical signal lifts the plunger, opening the fluid path. What changes across the four stages is not the valve itself — but what triggers the signal: Image by Gemini
Fig. 9.11 Five stages of actuation, from manual to autonomous. At each step, a new class of human effort is eliminated: presence, attention, repetitive judgment, and finally local-only awareness: Author's own work
Fig. 9.12 Analytics Stack Planner — rent-versus-own stack designer: Author's own work
Fig. 9.13 Compute Locator — match each workload to edge, hub, or cloud: Author's own work
Fig. 9.14 The Autonomy Ladder: as fleet scale grows, so must the level of autonomy. Above the diagonal, the benefits that justify the climb. Below it, the infrastructure costs that fund it: Author's own work

Chapter 10

Fig. 10.1 A flock of Segways: Dean Kamen's spurned urban mobility vision: Via Wikimedia, CC BY 2.0 (Richard from DC, US) CC BY — credit required
Fig. 10.2 The floor of the Geneva International Motor Show: tens of thousands of enthusiasts stress-testing tomorrow's products today: Photo via Wikimedia Commons
Fig. 10.3 Haute couture: fashion's concept car. Designs built not to sell but to test which ideas earn their way into production: Photo: Shaun Alexander for Alice Abraham. Via Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 3.0 (Fashion Photographer) CC BY-SA — credit required
Fig. 10.4 Ready-to-wear: fashion's production line. Portrait of an anonymous model illustrating contemporary commercial styling: Via Wikimedia Commons, CC0 (www.Pixel.la Free Stock Photos) Public domain / CC0
Fig. 10.5 1969 Holden Hurricane Concept Car: as wild as it gets: Via Wikimedia, CC BY 2.0 (Sicnag) CC BY — credit required
Fig. 10.6 From ideation to launch: intermediate validation: Author's diagram. © Yoel Frischoff
Fig. 10.7 Imagination, maturity, and risk on the validation cycle: Author's own work
Fig. 10.8 Rolls-Royce 103EX: Will this version of the future ever materialize?: Rolls-Royce 103EX Vision Next 100 concept (interior). Rolls-Royce Motor Cars. Press image — editorial use only. Written permission required for commercial book publication
Fig. 10.9 The Rolls no one will presumably ever drive: Rolls-Royce 103EX Vision Next 100 concept (exterior). Rolls-Royce Motor Cars. Press image — editorial use only. Written permission required for commercial book publication
Fig. 10.10 Waymo Ojai: Rider First Interior: Source: Waymo

Chapter 11

Fig. 11.1 Software development: standing on the shoulders of giants with manageable area for experimentation: Author's modification
Fig. 11.2 Car Subsystems: Specificity, Cost, Value: Author's own work
Fig. 11.3 Douglas Engelbart's prototype mouse (c. 1964), on display at the Computer History Museum: via Wikimedia Commons
Fig. 11.4 Siemens Desiro City Class 707 mockup (unit 707001 with 700001 inside): CC BY-SA 2.0, Train Photos via Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA — credit required
Fig. 11.5 Prototype of a wLAN optical switch for distributed antenna systems. The machined enclosure and hand-wired SMA connectors stand in for production die-cast housing and automated assembly: Photo: Author's own work, enhanced with Google Gemini
Fig. 11.6 1948 Land Rover pre-production model on display at a transport museum: via Wikimedia Commons, CC BY 2.0 (sv1ambo) CC BY — credit required

Chapter 12

Fig. 12.1 Rabbit R1 AI assistant device — If it looks like a prototype, maybe it's not ready for mass market: Via Wikimedia Commons, CC BY 3.0 (Booredatwork.com) CC BY — credit required
Fig. 12.2 Humane AI Pin: \$230 million in venture capital, 10,000 units shipped, e-waste by February 2025: Photo by Ged Carroll, CC BY 2.0, via Flickr CC BY — credit required
Fig. 12.3 The Decoupled MVP: six parallel tracks, four decision gates, one critical chain: Author's own work
Fig. 12.4 Singing in the car: a behavior validated by culture long before anyone tried to productize it: Photo by Vitaly Gariev on Pexels, Pexels License
Fig. 12.5 An automotive infotainment development platform: the borrowed hardware that lets software teams validate in-car experiences without building a car: Image by the author, generated with Google Gemini
Fig. 12.6 Caraoke Android MVP: scrolling lyrics, real-time voice mixing, and playback controls — the full experience validated on a phone before any custom hardware was committed: Design: KindGeek

Chapter 13

Fig. 13.1 SharkNinja category expansion (2007–2025): From 2 sub-categories to 38, and \$250M to \$6.4B in revenue. Sub-category counts from SharkNinja investor presentations
Fig. 13.2 Ethnographic product research: observing how consumers actually use products in their homes, rather than asking them what they want: Image by the author, generated with Google Gemini
Fig. 13.3 Ninja Blender Professional 1000W: It already has one button. Does it need an app? Photo: Ajay Suresh, CC BY 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons CC BY — credit required
Fig. 13.4 Electrum's four phases, from exploration to gate review: a structured path to placing every function — hardware, firmware, app, or cloud — on the right layer before tooling locks the choice in: Author's own work
Fig. 13.5 Espro ceiling-mounted IR beacon for museum audioguides: Borrowing the stage spotlight archetype allowed fast tooling and a five-week development cycle. Design by the author
Fig. 13.6 Foxcom Wireless ModuLite series: multi-carrier RF-over-fiber multiplexers for in-building wireless coverage: First production units were machined from billet aluminum to ship months ahead of die-cast tooling. Image by the author
Fig. 13.7 HomeFree patient monitor, Gen 2: exploded view showing the watch body (electronics, sensors) separated from the snap-on strap-and-battery module: Design: Eitan Sharif, I2D Design Office. Image by the author
Fig. 13.8 Ninja Foodi MAX Health Grill & Air Fryer: One generation in a rapid iteration cycle that produced five distinct form factors in seven years. Photo: User:בר, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA — credit required

Chapter 14

Fig. 14.1 Feature-based perceptual map for smartphones: Author's own work
Fig. 14.2 Kia Seltos competitive analysis spider graph: Source: Insight Quantum
Fig. 14.3 Apple Vision Pro \$3,500 unit: Photo by Bram Van Oost on Unsplash

Chapter 15

Fig. 15.1 Launch event with presenter and cheering audience: Generated with FLUX.1 Krea Dev
Fig. 15.2 The iconic envelope moment exemplified how hardware design narrative — not just engineering — drives market differentiation and adoption: Image: Apple Inc, Apple Inc., used for editorial analysis
Fig. 15.3 Tesla Cybertruck unveiling, November 21, 2019: Chief Designer Franz von Holzhausen throws a steel ball at the "Armor Glass" window to demonstrate its durability. The window shattered on live stream: Photo: u/Kruzat, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA — credit required
Fig. 15.4 ZooZ Medical AdvanStep demo unit at Sheba orthopedic ward, 2009. It didn't work — until it did: Photo by the author
Fig. 15.5 Blancpain sports-luxury watch in presentation case: the packaging outlasts the purchase moment because it was designed to: Photo by Ye Massa on Unsplash, Unsplash License
Fig. 15.6 Apple iPhone packaging patent (US 7,878,326 B2, 2011): Exploded view showing lid, device tray with retention features, accessory compartment, and base. Fifteen co-inventors including Steve Jobs and Jonathan Ive. Source: Google Patents, Public domain (US patent) Public domain / CC0
Fig. 15.7 iPhone packaging: layered reveal, minimal friction, device presented face-up: Photo by the author

Chapter 16

Fig. 16.1 Apple II running VisiCalc, widely regarded as the first "killer app": Photo by Jean-Edouard Rozey. Flicker CC
Fig. 16.2 Sony Walkman with headphones: Photo by Florian Schmetz on Unsplash
Fig. 16.3 Sony Walkman promotion, Tokyo, 1979: Young demonstrators offered passersby the chance to listen
Fig. 16.4 Dyson DC07 bagless vacuum cleaner: Photo by Arpingstone, public domain Public domain / CC0
Fig. 16.5 Nintendo Wii Remote controller: CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA — credit required
Fig. 16.6 Estimated global market share: Nintendo Wii, Sony PlayStation, and Microsoft Xbox (2001–2016): Based on synthesized data
Fig. 16.7 Steve Jobs introduces iPhone, January 2007: Apple, via YouTube
Fig. 16.8 iPhone (first generation, 2007): Photo by Carl Berkeley, CC BY-SA 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA — credit required
Fig. 16.9 BlackBerry Classic (Q20) with physical keyboard: Photo by Linh Nguyen on Unsplash
Fig. 16.10 iPhone virtual keyboard with visual pop-up feedback: Image by the author
Fig. 16.11 Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) browser rendering Wikipedia on a mobile device: CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA — credit required
Fig. 16.12 Tesla Model S over-the-air update screen: Image via Teslarati
Fig. 16.13 Tesla Romance Mode Easter Egg: Tesla, 2018, via YouTube
Fig. 16.14 Killer feature dynamics: three axes of disruption: By the author

Chapter 17

Fig. 17.1 Prague Orloj: civic timekeeping as public infrastructure: Photo by Pražský orloj on Unsplash, Unsplash License
Fig. 17.2 Watch movement with complications: Hundreds of hand-assembled parts, months of labor: Photo by F aint on Unsplash, Unsplash License
Fig. 17.3 Casio G-Shock: digital accuracy, rugged construction, under CHF10 to manufacture: Image: Unsplash, Unsplash License
Fig. 17.4 Initial Swatch prototypes: Image: Swatch Prototypes
Fig. 17.5 Kiki Picasso Swatches: watchmaking meets fast fashion: Image: Swatch Prototypes
Fig. 17.6 Interest in Swatch stagnates as Apple Watch's surges: Source: Google Trends. Downloaded and edited April '26
Fig. 17.7 The innocuous-looking Apple Watch: Image: Unsplash, Unsplash License
Fig. 17.8 Nokia feature phone: the product its leadership couldn't stop defending: Photo by Rachit Tank on Unsplash, Unsplash License
Fig. 17.9 Nokia's stock price vs. iPhone's rise: Source: Yahoo Finance
Fig. 17.10 Swatch Paparazzi: Swatch's most ambitious connected watch, powered by Microsoft SPOT OS: Photo by S. Dreilinger, 2010, Flickr
Fig. 17.11 Patek Philippe day-date moon phase: a combination of complication and haute joaillerie: Photo by Kent Lâm on Unsplash, Unsplash License
Fig. 17.12 Software-based effortless complications: Source: Apple marketing materials
Fig. 17.13 Apple Watch unit sales vs. Swatch Group revenue (2015–2024): Sources: IDC / Strategy Analytics (Apple Watch); Statista (Swatch Group)
Fig. 17.14 Global smartwatch shipments vs. Swiss watch exports (2014–2024): Smartwatches overtook Swiss exports in 2018. Sources: IDC, Counterpoint Research (smartwatches); Fédération de l'Industrie Horlogère Suisse (Swiss exports)
Fig. 17.15 Battery life is a known culprit with Apple Watches: Author's screenshot
Fig. 17.16 Pre-owned value as a proxy for useful lifetime: smartwatches depreciate to zero: Author's chart
Fig. 17.17 Speculative UGC (user-generated content) watch face as a personalized statement: Author's own work
Fig. 17.18 Speculative: Pigment mobile app concept: Author's own work
Fig. 17.19 Pigment prototype screen: Author's own work

Chapter 18

Fig. 18.1 Andy Greenberg's highway demonstration for Wired. The researchers controlled the Jeep from ten miles away: Author's own work, inspired by Andy Greenberg's Wired article
Fig. 18.2 IoT-adapted OSI model: expanded physical and application layers reflect the attack surface of connected hardware: Author's own work
Fig. 18.3 Consumer failures and state-actor operations converge on the same vulnerability class. The root causes are identical; the blast radius is not: Author's own work
Fig. 18.4 Screenshot of a prison facility from security footage provided by APT-69420: The hacktivist group accessed 150,000 Verkada cameras in March 2021, including facilities housing vulnerable populations. Source: APT-69420, via Bloomberg
Fig. 18.5 US Cyber Trust Mark: a voluntary labeling program for IoT security, modeled on Energy Star: Source: FCC
Fig. 18.6 Apple's Secure Enclave: hardware-rooted security designed in from the silicon level: Source: Apple
Fig. 18.7 Ring doorbell camera. Millions installed; no mandatory two-factor authentication at the time of the attacks: Source: ABC News
Fig. 18.8 Abbott (St. Jude Medical) pacemaker. Over 400,000 patients required a firmware update to a device implanted in their chest: Source: Abbott

Chapter 19

Fig. 19.1 BMW Connected Drive Portal Displaying Front Seat Heating as a Subscription Service: Image: CarThrottle
Fig. 19.2 The modules of the Fairphone 3 mounted on a display: Source: Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 4.0 (PKFP) CC BY-SA — credit required
Fig. 19.3 A John Deere tractor — the embedded firmware, VIN-locking, and dealer-only diagnostic software at the center of both the parts-pairing dispute and the Melitopol bricking: Photo by Julia Koblitz on Unsplash, Unsplash License
Fig. 19.4 The John Hancock Vitality program — Apple Watch and life-insurance premium discounts conditioned on activity goals: Image: John Hancock
Fig. 19.5 The anonymized Strava activity Le Monde used to triangulate the Charles de Gaulle's position in the eastern Mediterranean: Source: Le Monde

Chapter 20

Fig. 20.1 Getting smart about unit economics: Photo by Dithira Hettiarachchi on Unsplash, Unsplash License
Fig. 20.2 Manufacturing-mode crossover: Total cost $\color{#1F3A93} \mathit{ C = FC + Q \cdot VC }$ plotted for both strategies. Below the crossover at $\color{#1F3A93} Q^ \approx 117{,}647$ units, small series is cheaper; above it, mass manufacturing wins
Fig. 20.3 Foxcom Wireless (MobileAccess Networks) ModuLite multiplexers: Author's own work

Chapter 21

Fig. 21.1 Dolav 300L Waste Bin: Author's own work
Fig. 21.2 A Typical Monobloc rest chair, modeled after Henry Massonnet's 1972 Fauteuil 300: Image: modified from Wikimedia Commons, CC BY 2.0 (Seniju) CC BY — credit required
Fig. 21.3 Generations of the Volkswagen Golf, shown as simplified line drawings: Image generated with DALL-E in ChatGPT by OpenAI, May 11, 2026, based on a prompt by the author
Fig. 21.4 Evolution of Sony PlayStation console design, 1994-2024: AI-generated line illustration created by the author using DALL-E in ChatGPT, OpenAI, May 11, 2026
Fig. 21.5 Normalized sales cycle for different durable good categories, by clockspeed: Author's own work
Fig. 21.6 Financial lifecycle of a single product: Author's own work
Fig. 21.7 Expenses peak before and during launch, shown for successive launches: Author's own work
Fig. 21.8 The Centennial Light Bulb from Livermore, CA: Image: Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 4.0 (Gazebo) CC BY-SA — credit required
Fig. 21.9 Nespresso Turmix C-100, 1990: Image: Nespresso
Fig. 21.10 Nespresso Capsules: Photo by Alessandro Russo on Unsplash, Unsplash License
Fig. 21.11 Nespresso Inissia: Image: Nespresso
Fig. 21.12 Customer profit trajectory across the customer lifetime: Author's own work
Fig. 21.13 Xerox 914 (1959), the first plain-paper office copier: Xerox leased the machine and charged per copy — pioneering the leasing-plus-consumption-billing model that became the template for razor-and-blades in countless other categories. Image: modified from the Smithsonian National Museum of American History (CC0) Public domain / CC0
Fig. 21.14 Servers in a rack: the real hardware behind the cloud: Image: Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 3.0 (Abigor) CC BY-SA — credit required
Fig. 21.15 The Tangible Stack: capabilities and revenue streams: Author's own work
Fig. 21.16 Human Machine Interface makes industrial equipment user friendly: Courtesy Puro Systems
Fig. 21.17 La Marzocco's mobile dashboard: Image: author's screenshot of the La Marzocco Home app on iOS
Fig. 21.18 La Marzocco's FOTA functionality: Image: author's screenshot of the La Marzocco Home app on iOS
Fig. 21.19 Apple's iCloud: a gentle, monthly upsell: Image: Apple
Fig. 21.20 macOS Migration Assistant: your digital identity travels with you: Image: Apple Support
Fig. 21.21 Google Pay: a slice of every transaction: Image: Wikimedia Commons, Public domain (Google) Public domain / CC0
Fig. 21.22 Samsung Galaxy Store: trying to play the marketplace layer: Image: Samsung Newsroom
Fig. 21.23 Roku Channel Store: Image: Roku Developer Platform
Fig. 21.24 Roku streaming devices: Image: Roku

Chapter 22

Fig. 22.1 Elon Musk announces new Tesla features: Screenshot from Twitter/X, @elonmusk, November 2018
Fig. 22.2 Automated FOTA message: Source: Teslarati
Fig. 22.3 Samsung Galaxy customer gross profit streams: Author's own work
Fig. 22.4 Apple Inc. revenue sources, FY2023: Author's chart; data: Apple FY2023 Form 10-K
Fig. 22.5 iPhone customer gross profit streams: Author's own work; per-year services figures derived from App Economy Insights

Chapter 23

Fig. 23.1 iRobot Roomba: the quintessential robot mopper: Photo by Onur Binay on Unsplash, Unsplash License
Fig. 23.2 IRBT daily closing prices, February–March 2025: Data from Yahoo Finance, retrieved March 31, 2025
Fig. 23.3 The new Roomba line-up, launched March 2025: Source: iRobot Newsroom
Fig. 23.4 Revenue over time from a typical consumer: illustration: Author's chart
Fig. 23.5 Revenue from a durable good over the model lifetime: illustration: Author's chart
Fig. 23.6 (Spoiler: Discontinued) iRobot Select program: Source: iRobot (Select program page archived; program since discontinued)
Fig. 23.7 iRobot Home app: Source: iRobot Home app product page
Fig. 23.8 App Store commission as part of total revenue: Author's chart; data approximated from Apple's 10-K filings — Apple consolidates services revenue, so App Store share is estimated
Fig. 23.9 Add timely offerings: Author's mockup
Fig. 23.10 Proposed iRobot marketplace: Author's mockup
Fig. 23.11 Enriched notifications: Author's mockup
Fig. 23.12 Schedule area beefed with timely offerings: Author's mockup
Fig. 23.13 Business registration page: Author's mockup
Fig. 23.14 Service page: Author's mockup
Fig. 23.15 Business profile: Author's mockup

Chapter 24

Fig. 24.1 Acceleration: do you feel it?: Image: Marc-Olivier Jodoin / Unsplash, Unsplash License
Fig. 24.2 AI's uneven compression across the hardware development chain: Author's analysis. Anchored to endnotes – where direct measurement exists; values for the five stages drawn with hollow markers are reasoned, not measured
Fig. 24.3 Noise on any single unit becomes a detectable signal across the fleet: Author's analysis
Fig. 24.4 Earlier catch, smaller blast radius: Author's analysis
Fig. 24.5 The bi-metal thermostat: a threshold frozen at the factory: Image: Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 3.0 (Nillerdk (talk)) CC BY-SA — credit required
Fig. 24.6 Blind men appraising an elephant: Image: Ohara Donshu (Japanese, d. 1857), Brooklyn Museum via Wikimedia Commons, public domain Public domain / CC0
Fig. 24.7 The maintenance window the swarm opens: Author's analysis
Fig. 24.8 Vineyards in Napa Valley: Image: Brocken Inaglory / Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 3.0 (Brocken Inaglory) CC BY-SA — credit required
Fig. 24.9 The collapsed Ponte Morandi spurred advanced structural metrics: Image: Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 4.0 CC BY-SA — credit required
Fig. 24.10 The grid's blast radius: a city street during a power cut: Image: Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 3.0 (Jen / Mangostar) CC BY-SA — credit required
Fig. 24.11 Same digit, same neighborhood: a t-SNE of handwritten digits (digit labels added arbitrarily for the illustration): Image: adapted from Wikimedia Commons, CC BY 2.0 CC BY — credit required
Fig. 24.12 Unstructured 3D: a LiDAR point cloud of a San Francisco intersection: Image: Wikimedia Commons, CC BY 4.0 (Daniel L. Lu) CC BY — credit required
Fig. 24.13 Sensor fusion in the hand: the infrared dot pattern Face ID projects to build a depth map of the face: Image: Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 4.0 (Phiarc) CC BY-SA — credit required

Chapter 25

Fig. 25.1 The tangibles PM as convergence point for ten product streams: Author's own work
Fig. 25.2 The Time-Scale Split: hardware freezes at launch while software iterates for the product's life: Author's own work
Fig. 25.3 The Commitment Stack: layers of a tangible ordered by cost to reverse, bedrock to fluid: Author's own work
Fig. 25.4 The irreversibility strip: how much a single decision binds you, at a glance: Author's own work